Physiology (from Greek Ancient Greek is the historical stage in the development of the Greek language spanning across the Archaic , Classical (c. 5th–4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic (c. 3rd century BC–6th century AD) periods of ancient Greece and the ancient world. It is predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek. Its Hellenistic phase is known as Koine φύσις, physis, "nature, origin"; and -λογία, -logia -logy is a suffix in English, found in words originally adapted from Greek words ending in -λογία . The earliest English examples were anglicizations of the French -logie, which was in turn inherited from the Latin -logia) is the study of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of living organisms In biology, an organism is any living system . In at least some form, all organisms are capable of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, and maintenance of homeostasis as a stable whole. An organism may either be unicellular (single-celled) or be composed of, as in humans, many billions of cells grouped into specialized. Physiology has traditionally been divided between plant physiology Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of botany concerned with the function, or physiology, of plants. Closely related fields include plant morphology , plant ecology (interactions with the environment), phytochemistry (biochemistry of plants), cell biology, and molecular biology and animal and all living things physiology but the principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism In biology, an organism is any living thing . In at least some form, all organisms are capable of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, and maintenance of homeostasis as a stable whole. An organism may either be unicellular (single-celled) or be composed of, as in humans, many billions of cells grouped into specialized tissues is being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast Yeasts are eukaryotic microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1,500 species currently described; they dominate fungal diversity in the oceans. Most reproduce asexually by budding, although a few do so by binary fission. Yeasts are unicellular, although some species with yeast forms may become multicellular through the formation cells Cell biology is an academic discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level. Cell biology research encompasses both the great diversity of single-celled may also apply to human A human is a member of a species of bipedal primates in the family Hominidae . DNA and fossil evidence indicates that modern humans originated in east Africa about 200,000 years ago. When compared to other animals and primates, humans have a highly developed brain, capable of abstract reasoning, language, introspection and problem solving. This cells.

The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of human physiology Human physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans in good health, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. The principal level of focus of physiology is at the level of organs and systems. Most aspects of human physiology are closely homologous to corresponding aspects of animal to non-human animal species There are many definitions of what kind of unit a species is . A common definition is that of a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring, and separated from other such groups with which interbreeding does not (normally) happen. Other definitions may focus on similarity of DNA or morphology. Some species are. Plant physiology also borrows techniques from both fields. Its scope of subjects is at least as diverse as the tree of life The concept of a many-branched tree illustrating the idea that all life on earth is related has been used in science, religion, philosophy, mythology and other areas. A tree of life is variously, a) a mystical concept alluding to the interconnectedness of all life on our planet, b) a metaphor for common descent in the evolutionary sense, and c) a itself. Due to this diversity of subjects, research in animal physiology tends to concentrate on understanding how physiological traits changed throughout the evolutionary history This timeline of the evolution of life outlines the major events in the development of life on the planet Earth . For a thorough explanatory context, see the history of Earth, and geologic time scale. The dates given in this article are estimates based on scientific evidence of animals. Other major branches of scientific study that have grown out of physiology research include biochemistry Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living organisms. It deals with the structure and function of cellular components such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and other biomolecules, biophysics Biophysics is an interdisciplinary science that employs and develops theories and methods of the physical sciences for the investigation of biological systems. Studies included under the umbrella of biophysics span all levels of biological organization, from the molecular scale to whole organisms and ecosystems. Biophysical research shares, paleobiology Paleobiology is a growing and comparatively new discipline which combines the methods and findings of the natural science biology with the methods and findings of the earth science paleontology. It is occasionally referred to as "geobiology.", biomechanics Biomechanics is the application of mechanical principles to living organisms. This includes bioengineering, the research and analysis of the mechanics of living organisms and the application of engineering principles to and from biological systems. This research and analysis can be carried forth on multiple levels, from the molecular, wherein, and pharmacology Pharmacology is the study of drug action. More specifically it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and exogenous chemicals that alter normal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. The field encompasses drug composition and properties, interactions,.

History

Human physiology dates back to at least 420 B.C. and the time of Hippocrates Hippocrates of Cos or Hippokrates of Kos - Greek: Ἱπποκράτης; Hippokrátēs was an ancient Greek physician of the Age of Pericles, and was considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is referred to as the "father of medicine" in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field as the,^[1] the father of medicine. The critical thinking of Aristotle Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. He wrote on many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology and zoology and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca. 1100 BC and the Dorian invasion, to 146 BC and the Roman conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth. It is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of Western civilization and shaped cultures throughout, while Claudius Galenus (c. 126-199 A.D.), known as Galen Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus , better known as Galen of Pergamum (Greek: Γαληνός, Galēnos), was a prominent Roman physician and philosopher of Greek origin, and probably the most accomplished medical researcher of the Roman period. His theories dominated and influenced Western medical science for well over a millennium. His account, was the first to use experiments to probe the function of the body. Galen was the founder of experimental physiology.^[2] The ancient Indian books of Ayurveda Ayurveda believes in five great Elements -- to compose the Universe, including the human body. Chyle, blood, flesh, fat, bone, marrow, and semen are believed to be the seven primary constituent elements (Devanāgarī: सप्तधातु) of the body. Ayurveda stresses a balance of three substances: wind/spirit/air, phlegm, and bile, each, the Sushruta Samhita The Sushruta Samhita is a Sanskrit text on surgery, attributed to Sushruta, , the "father of Surgery". The original manuscript has not survived, and only "copies of copies and revisions of revisions" exist. The Bower Manuscript holds some of the most important information related to the early Ayurvedic documents and Charaka Samhita The Caraka Saṃhitā Sutra is an ancient Indian Ayurvedic text on internal medicine written by Caraka. It is believed to be the oldest of the three ancient treatises of Ayurveda. It is central to the modern-day practice of Ayurvedic medicine; and, along with the Suśruta Saṃhitā it is now identified worldwide as an important early source of, also had descriptions on human anatomy and physiology. The medical world moved on from Galvanism only with the appearance of Andreas Vesalius Andreas Vesalius was an anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the Structure of the Human Body). Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy and William Harvey William Harvey was an English physician who was the first in the Western world to describe correctly and in exact detail the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped around the body by the heart.^[3]

During the Middle Ages The Middle Ages of European history are a period in history which lasted for roughly a millennium, commonly dated from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century to the beginning of the Early Modern Period in the 16th century, marked by the division of Western Christianity in the Reformation, the rise of humanism in the Italian, the ancient Greek and Indian medical traditions were further developed by Muslim physicians In the history of medicine, Islamic medicine or Arabic medicine refers to medicine developed in the medieval Islamic civilization and written in Arabic, the lingua franca of the Islamic civilization. Despite these names, a significant number of scientists during this period were not Arab. Some consider the label "Arab-Islamic" as, most notably Avicenna Abū ‘Alī al-Ḥusayn ibn ‘Abd Allāh ibn Sīnā', known as Abū Alī Sīnā or Ibn Sīnā (Arabic: ابن سینا‎), and commonly known in English by his Latinized name Avicenna (Greek: Aβιτζιανός, Abitzianos), (c. 980 - 1037) was a Persian polymath and the foremost physician and philosopher of his time. He was also an astronomer, (980-1037), who introduced experimentation In scientific inquiry, an experiment is a method of investigating causal relationships among variables. An experiment is a cornerstone of the empirical approach to acquiring data about the world and is used in both natural sciences and social sciences. An experiment can be used to help solve practical problems and to support or negate theoretical and quantification Quantification has two distinct meanings. In mathematics and empirical science, it refers to human acts, known as counting and measuring that map human sense observations and experiences into members of some set of numbers. Quantification in this sense is fundamental to the scientific method into the study of physiology in The Canon of Medicine Also known as the Qanun, which means "law" in Arabic and Persian, the Canon of Medicine remained a medical authority up until the 18th century and early 19th century. It set the standards for medicine in Europe and the Islamic world, and is Avicenna's most renowned written work. Qanun was used at many medical schools—at University of. Many of the ancient physiological doctrines were eventually discredited by Ibn al-Nafis Ibn al-Nafis is now most famous for being the first physician to describe the pulmonary transit of blood. His discovery disproved the 1000 year-old theory of Galen who suggested invisible pores in the intraventricular septum. Ibn Nafis clearly stated that the "blood in the right ventricle of the heart must reach the lest ventricule by way of (1213-1288), who was the first physician to correctly describe the anatomy Anatomy is a branch of biology and Medicine which studies primarily the internal structure and design of the structure of living things. It is a general term that includes human anatomy, animal anatomy (zootomy) and plant anatomy (phytotomy). Anatomy is divided into various sub specialties in some of its facets anatomy is closely related to of the heart The heart of a vertebrate is composed of cardiac muscle, an involuntary striated muscle tissue which is found only within this organ. The average human heart, beating at 72 beats per minute, will beat approximately 2.5 billion times during a lifetime . It weighs on average 250 g to 300 g in females and 300 g to 350 g in males, the coronary circulation Coronary circulation is the circulation of blood in the blood vessels of the heart muscle. Although blood fills the chambers of the heart, the muscle tissue of the heart is so thick that it requires coronary blood vessels to deliver blood deep into it. The vessels that deliver oxygen-rich blood to the myocardium are known as coronary arteries. The, the structure of the lungs The lung or pulmonary system is the essential respiration organ in air-breathing animals, including most tetrapods, a few fish and a few snails. In mammals and the more complex life forms, the two lungs are located in the chest on either side of the heart. Their principal function is to transport oxygen from the atmosphere into the bloodstream,, and the pulmonary circulation Pulmonary circulation is the portion of the cardiovascular system which carries oxygen-depleted blood away from the heart, to the lungs, and returns oxygenated blood back to the heart. The term is contrasted with systemic circulation, for which he is considered the father of circulatory physiology Cardiovascular physiology is the study of the circulatory system. More specifically, it addresses the physiology of the heart and blood vessels ("vascular").^[4] He was also the first to describe the relationship between the lungs and the aeration Aeration is the process by which air is circulated through, mixed with or dissolved in a liquid or substance of the blood Blood is a specialized bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells — such as nutrients and oxygen — and transports waste products away from those same cells, the cause of pulsation In medicine, a person's pulse is the arterial palpation of a heartbeat. It can be palpated in any place that allows for an artery to be compressed against a bone, such as at the neck , at the wrist (radial artery), behind the knee (popliteal artery), on the inside of the elbow (brachial artery), and near the ankle joint (posterior tibial artery),^[5] and an early concept of capillary Capillaries are the smallest of a body's blood vessels and are part of the microcirculation. These microvessels, measuring 5-10 μm in diameter, connect arterioles and venules, and enable the exchange of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and many other nutrient and waste chemical substances between blood and surrounding tissues circulation.^[6]

Following from the Middle Ages, the Renaissance The Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Florence in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historic era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe, this is a general use of the brought an increase of physiological research in the Western world The term Western world, the West or the Occident can have multiple meanings dependent on its context (e.g., the time period, the region or social situation). Accordingly, the basic definition of what constitutes "the West" varies, expanding and contracting over time, in relation to various historical circumstances. Some historians[who?] that triggered the modern study of anatomy and physiology. Andreas Vesalius Andreas Vesalius was an anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the Structure of the Human Body). Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy was an author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy Human anatomy, which, with physiology and biochemistry, is a complementary basic medical science is primarily the scientific study of the morphology of the adult human body. Anatomy is subdivided into gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy is the study of anatomical structures that can be seen by unaided vision. Microscopic anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica De humani corporis fabrica libri septem is a textbook of human anatomy written by Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) in 1543.^[7] Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy.^[8] Anatomist Anatomy is a branch of biology and Medicine which studies primarily the internal structure and design of the structure of living things. It is a general term that includes human anatomy, animal anatomy (zootomy) and plant anatomy (phytotomy). Anatomy is divided into various sub specialties in some of its facets anatomy is closely related to William Harvey William Harvey was an English physician who was the first in the Western world to describe correctly and in exact detail the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped around the body by the heart described the circulatory system in the 17th century,^[9] demonstrating the fruitful combination of close observations and careful experiments to learn about the functions of the body, which was fundamental to the development of experimental physiology. Herman Boerhaave is sometimes referred to as a father of physiology due to his exemplary teaching in Leiden and textbook 'Institutiones medicae' (1708).

In the 18th century very importante are the works on this field of Pierre Cabanis, a french doctor and physiologist.

In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate, most notably in 1838 with the Cell theory of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, which radically stated that organisms are made up of units called cells. Claude Bernard's (1813-1878) further discoveries ultimately led to his concept of milieu interieur (internal environment), which would later be taken up and championed as Homeostasis by American physiologist Walter Cannon (1871-1945).

In the 20th century, biologists also became interested in how organisms other than human beings function, eventually spawning the fields of comparative physiology and ecophysiology.^[10] Major figures in these fields include Knut Schmidt-Nielsen and George Bartholomew. Most recently, evolutionary physiology has become a distinct subdiscipline^[11].

See also

• Comparative physiology
• Defense Physiology
• Ecophysiology
• Evolutionary physiology
• Physiome
• The Physiological Society
• Somatopsychic

References

1. ^ Physiology - History of physiology, Branches of physiology
2. ^ Thoracic Surgery Clinics: Historical Perspectives of Thoracic Anatomy, Stanley C. Fell and F. Griffith Pearson
3. ^ Galen
4. ^ Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", Heart Views 5 (2), p. 74-85 [80].
5. ^ Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (died 1288)", pp. 224-229, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame.[1]
6. ^ Paul Ghalioungui, Ibn an-Nafis, Cairo, 1966, pp. 109-129, and "The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation" for the Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait, 1982.
7. ^ Page through a virtual copy of Vesalius's De Humanis Corporis Fabrica
8. ^ Andreas Vesalius (1514-1567)
9. ^ Zimmer, Carl. 2004. Soul Made Flesh: The Discovery of the Brain - and How It Changed the World. New York: Free Press.
10. ^ Feder, M. E., A. F. Bennett, W. W. Burggren, and R. B. Huey, eds. 1987. New directions in ecological physiology. Cambridge Univ. Press, New York.
11. ^ http://www.biology.ucr.edu/peopl e/ faculty/Garland/GarlCa94.pdf Garland, T., Jr., and P. A. Carter. 1994. Evolutionary physiology. Annual Review of Physiology 56:579-621.

External links

• The Physiological Society
• Developmental physiology
• The American Physiological Society
• The Biophysical Society
• Physiwiki

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